Foundations
There are factors in the work environment that can take the place of the behavior of a leader. (pp. 298)
Substitute: Attributes of the organization, technology, task, and follower can provide the motivation, guidance, reward, and satisfaction needed for effective performance to such a degree that the behaviors of the leader are rendered unimportant. (pp. 298)
Neutralizer: Certain work environment factors prevent leaders from acting as they wish or neutralize the effects of certain acts of leadership (pp. 298)
Technology, job design, and work unit structure are possible substitutes for leader-initiating structure (pp. 298)
The effects of a number of substitutes (subordinate, task, and organizational characteristics) have a substantial impact on employee attitudes, perceptions, and performance (pp. 298)
The results of the research provide strong support for Kerr and Jermier’s suggestion that one reason why leader behaviors account for little variance in employee attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors is that the leader’s context also has an impact on such criterion measures (pp. 298)
Podsakoff et al (1996) three conclusions (pp. 298):
- the substitutes are more important than leader behavior in the determination of job satisfaction, commitment, and role ambiguity
- leader behaviors seem to be more important than the substitutes in terms of employee performance
- for role conflict, altruism, attendance, and conscientiousness, the substitutes and leader behaviors are equally influential
Self-leadership: the follower who exhibits self-leadership engages in behaviors that may render unnecessary the same behaviors stemming from the leader (pp. 299)
Horizontal leadership: entails a simultaneous, ongoing, mutual influence process within a team (pp. 300)
Scholars
Kerr; Jermier; Podsakoff; MacKenzie; Bommer
Research
Kerr, S. & Jermier, J. M. (1978). Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 22, 375-403.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Bommer, W. H. (1996). Meta-analysis of the relationships between Kerr and Jermier’s substitutes for leadership and employee job attitudes, role perceptions, and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology. 81(4). 380-399.
Notes
Related Theories
ALEC 801 